Effectiveness and Usefulness of Bone Turnover Marker in Osteoporosis Patients: A Multicenter Study in Korea

Background@#This study aimed to investigate real-world data of C-terminal telopeptide (CTX), propeptide of type I collagen (P1NP), and osteocalcin through present multicenter clinical study, and retrospectively analyze the usefulness of bone turnover markers (BTMs) in Koreans. @*Methods@#The study focused on pre- and post-menopausal patients diagnosed with osteoporosis and excluded patients without certain test results or with test intervals of over 1 year. The demographic data and 3 BTMs (CTX, P1NP, and osteocalcin) were collected. The patients were classified by demographic characteristics and the BTM concentrations were analyzed by the group. @*Results@#Among women with no history of fractures, the levels of P1NP (N=2,100) were 43.544±36.902, CTX (N=1,855) were 0.373 ±0.927, and osteocalcin (N=219) were 10.81 ±20.631. Among men with no history of fractures, the levels of P1NP (N=221) were 48.498±52.892, CTX (N=201) were 0.370±0.351, and osteocalcin (N=15) were 7.868 ±10.674. Treatment with teriparatide increased the P1NP levels after 3 months in both men and women, with a 50% increase observed in women. Similarly, treatment with denosumab decreased the CTX levels after 3 months in both men and women, with a reduction of 50% observed in women. @*Conclusions@#The results of this study can contribute to the accurate assessment of bone replacement status in Koreans. We also provide the P1NP level in the Korean population for future comparative studies with other populations.

Fracture Liaison Service in Korea: 2022 Position Statement of the Korean Society for Bone and Mineral Research

Osteoporosis and osteoporotic fractures cause socioeconomic concerns, and medical system and policies appear insufficient to prepare for these issues in Korea, where the older adult population is rapidly increasing. Many countries around the world are already responding to osteoporosis and osteoporotic fractures by adopting fracture liaison service (FLS), and such an attempt has only begun in Korea. In this article, we introduce the operation methods for institutions implementing FLS and characteristics of services, and activities of the FLS Committee for FLS implementation in the Korean Society for Bone and Mineral Research. In addition, we hope that the current position statement will contribute to the implementation of FLS in Korea and impel policy changes to enable a multidisciplinary and integrated FLS operated under the medical system.

Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease with Sarcopenia and Carotid Plaque Progression Risk in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus

Background@#We aimed to evaluate whether non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) with or without sarcopenia is associated with progression of carotid atherosclerosis in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). @*Methods@#We investigated 852 T2DM patients who underwent abdominal ultrasonography, bioelectrical impedance analysis, and carotid artery ultrasonography at baseline and repeated carotid ultrasonography after 6 to 8 years. NAFLD was confirmed by abdominal ultrasonography, and sarcopenia was defined as a sex-specific skeletal muscle mass index (SMI) value <2 standard deviations below the mean for healthy young adults. SMI was calculated by dividing the sum of appendicular skeletal mass by body weight. We investigated the association between NAFLD with or without sarcopenia and the progression of carotid atherosclerosis. @*Results@#Of the 852 patients, 333 (39.1%) were classified as NAFLD without sarcopenia, 66 (7.7%) were classified as sarcopenia without NAFLD, and 123 (14.4%) had NAFLD with sarcopenia at baseline. After 6 to 8 years, patients with both NAFLD and sarcopenia had a higher risk of atherosclerosis progression (adjusted odds ratio, 2.20; P<0.009) than controls without NAFLD and sarcopenia. When a subgroup analysis was performed on only patients with NAFLD, female sex, absence of central obesity, and non-obesity were significant factors related to increased risk of plaque progression risk in sarcopenic patients. @*Conclusion@#NAFLD with sarcopenia was significantly associated with the progression of carotid atherosclerosis in T2DM patients.

Decreased Serum Level of Sclerostin in Older Adults with Sarcopenia

Background@#Although muscles and bones interact with each other through various secretory factors, the role of sclerostin, an osteocyte-secreted factor, on muscle metabolism has not been well studied. We investigated the levels of serum sclerostin in Korean older adults with sarcopenia. @*Methods@#Blood samples were collected from 129 participants who underwent evaluation of muscle mass and function in an outpatient geriatric clinic of a teaching hospital. Sarcopenia and related parameters were determined using cutoff values for the Asian population. Serum sclerostin levels were measured using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. @*Results@#The mean age of the participants was 69.6 years, and 20 participants (15.5%) were classified as having sarcopenia. After adjusting for age, sex, and body mass index, serum sclerostin levels were significantly lower in participants with sarcopenia, low muscle mass, or weak muscle strength (P=0.003 to 0.045). Serum sclerostin levels were positively associated with skeletal muscle index and grip strength after adjusting for confounders (P=0.001 and P=0.003), whereas sarcopenic phenotype score showed a negative association (P=0.006). These increases in muscle mass and strength were also dose dependent as serum sclerostin levels increased (P for trends=0.003 and P for trends=0.015). Higher serum sclerostin levels were associated with lower odds ratio (ORs) for sarcopenia, low muscle mass, and weak muscle strength after adjusting for confounders (OR, 0.27 to 0.50; P<0.001 to 0.025). @*Conclusion@#Higher serum sclerostin levels were associated with a lower risk of sarcopenia, low muscle mass, and weak muscle strength in Korean older adults.

Advanced Liver Fibrosis Is Associated with Chronic Kidney Disease in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus and Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease

Background@#Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is associated with chronic kidney disease (CKD). However, the causal relationship between NAFLD and CKD is uncertain, particularly in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). We aimed to investigate the association between the presence and severity of NAFLD and incident CKD in patients with T2DM. @*Methods@#In this longitudinal cohort study of patients with T2DM, 3,188 patients with preserved renal function were followed up for the occurrence of incident CKD. NAFLD was defined as the presence of hepatic steatosis on ultrasonography, without any other causes of chronic liver disease. Advanced liver fibrosis of NAFLD was defined as a fibrosis-4 index ≥2.67. CKD was defined as an estimated glomerular filtration rate <60 mL/min/1.73 m2. @*Results@#At baseline, 1,729 (54.2%) patients had NAFLD, of whom 94 (5.4%) had advanced liver fibrosis. During the follow-up of 8.3±3.6 years, 472 (14.8%) patients developed incident CKD: 220 (15.1%) in the non-NAFLD group, 231 (14.1%) in the NAFLD without advanced fibrosis group and 28 (31.1%) in the NAFLD with advanced fibrosis group. There was no increased risk of incident CKD in the NAFLD group compared to the non-NAFLD group (P=0.435). However, among patients with NAFLD, advanced liver fibrosis was associated with an increased risk of CKD (adjusted hazard ratio, 1.75; 95% confidence interval, 1.15 to 2.66; P=0.009). @*Conclusion@#Advanced liver fibrosis in patients with NAFLD is independently associated with an increased risk of incident CKD in patients with T2DM.

Serum Levels of Adipocyte Fatty Acid-Binding Protein Are Associated with Rapid Renal Function Decline in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus and Preserved Renal Function

BackgroundRecent studies have demonstrated that the levels of adipocyte fatty acid-binding protein (A-FABP) are closely associated with diabetic kidney disease (DKD) in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). This study aimed to examine the association between serum A-FABP level and rapid renal function decline in patients with T2DM and preserved renal function.MethodsThis was a prospective observational study of 452 patients with T2DM and preserved renal function who had serial measurements of estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR). Rapid renal function decline was defined as an eGFR decline of >4% per year. The association between baseline serum A-FABP level and rapid renal function decline was investigated.ResultsOver a median follow-up of 7 years, 82 participants (18.1%) experienced rapid renal function decline. Median A-FABP levels were significantly higher in patients with rapid renal function decline, compared to non-decliners (20.2 ng/mL vs. 17.2 ng/mL, P=0.005). A higher baseline level of A-FABP was associated with a greater risk of developing rapid renal function decline, independent of age, sex, duration of diabetes, body mass index, systolic blood pressure, history of cardiovascular disease, baseline eGFR, urine albumin creatinine ratio, total cholesterol, glycosylated hemoglobin, high-sensitivity C-reactive protein and use of thiazolidinedione, insulin, angiotensin-converting-enzyme inhibitors and angiotensin II-receptor blockers and statin (odds ratio, 3.10; 95% confidence interval, 1.53 to 6.29; P=0.002).ConclusionA high level of serum A-FABP is associated with an increased risk of rapid renal function decline in patients with T2DM and preserved renal function. This suggests that A-FABP could play a role in the progression of DKD in the early stages.

Serum Levels of Adipocyte Fatty Acid-Binding Protein Are Associated with Rapid Renal Function Decline in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus and Preserved Renal Function

Background@#Recent studies have demonstrated that the levels of adipocyte fatty acid-binding protein (A-FABP) are closely associated with diabetic kidney disease (DKD) in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). This study aimed to examine the association between serum A-FABP level and rapid renal function decline in patients with T2DM and preserved renal function. @*Methods@#This was a prospective observational study of 452 patients with T2DM and preserved renal function who had serial measurements of estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR). Rapid renal function decline was defined as an eGFR decline of >4% per year. The association between baseline serum A-FABP level and rapid renal function decline was investigated. @*Results@#Over a median follow-up of 7 years, 82 participants (18.1%) experienced rapid renal function decline. Median A-FABP levels were significantly higher in patients with rapid renal function decline, compared to non-decliners (20.2 ng/mL vs. 17.2 ng/ mL, P=0.005). A higher baseline level of A-FABP was associated with a greater risk of developing rapid renal function decline, independent of age, sex, duration of diabetes, body mass index, systolic blood pressure, history of cardiovascular disease, baseline eGFR, urine albumin creatinine ratio, total cholesterol, glycosylated hemoglobin, high-sensitivity C-reactive protein and use of thiazolidinedione, insulin, angiotensin-converting-enzyme inhibitors and angiotensin II-receptor blockers and statin (odds ratio, 3.10; 95% confidence interval, 1.53 to 6.29; P=0.002). @*Conclusion@#A high level of serum A-FABP is associated with an increased risk of rapid renal function decline in patients with T2DM and preserved renal function. This suggests that A-FABP could play a role in the progression of DKD in the early stages.

Serum Levels of Adipocyte Fatty Acid-Binding Protein Are Associated with Rapid Renal Function Decline in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus and Preserved Renal Function

BackgroundRecent studies have demonstrated that the levels of adipocyte fatty acid-binding protein (A-FABP) are closely associated with diabetic kidney disease (DKD) in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). This study aimed to examine the association between serum A-FABP level and rapid renal function decline in patients with T2DM and preserved renal function.MethodsThis was a prospective observational study of 452 patients with T2DM and preserved renal function who had serial measurements of estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR). Rapid renal function decline was defined as an eGFR decline of >4% per year. The association between baseline serum A-FABP level and rapid renal function decline was investigated.ResultsOver a median follow-up of 7 years, 82 participants (18.1%) experienced rapid renal function decline. Median A-FABP levels were significantly higher in patients with rapid renal function decline, compared to non-decliners (20.2 ng/mL vs. 17.2 ng/mL, P=0.005). A higher baseline level of A-FABP was associated with a greater risk of developing rapid renal function decline, independent of age, sex, duration of diabetes, body mass index, systolic blood pressure, history of cardiovascular disease, baseline eGFR, urine albumin creatinine ratio, total cholesterol, glycosylated hemoglobin, high-sensitivity C-reactive protein and use of thiazolidinedione, insulin, angiotensin-converting-enzyme inhibitors and angiotensin II-receptor blockers and statin (odds ratio, 3.10; 95% confidence interval, 1.53 to 6.29; P=0.002).ConclusionA high level of serum A-FABP is associated with an increased risk of rapid renal function decline in patients with T2DM and preserved renal function. This suggests that A-FABP could play a role in the progression of DKD in the early stages.

Clinical Application of Bone Turnover Markers in Osteoporosis in Korea

Bone turnover markers (BTMs) have important role in the management of osteoporosis. Recently the clinical application of BTMs has achieved significant progress and measurement of BTMs give us better understanding of pathogenesis of osteoporosis. However, the use of BTMs is still insufficient in Korea. We summarized the available methods and standard interval of the BTMs in Korea. Also we reviewed published literatures on pre-analytical variability in the measurement of BTMs and provided recommendations for standardized sample handling and patient preparation for reducing those pre-analytical variabilities. The clinical application of BTMs in patients with chronic kidney disease who have a higher fracture risk than the general population is summarized.

Position Statement on the Use of Bone Turnover Markers for Osteoporosis Treatment

Current evidences continue to support the clinical application of bone turnover markers (BTMs) in the management of postmenopausal osteoporosis. The limitations of bone mineral density measured by dual energy X-ray absorptiomet especially emphasize the beneficial roles of BTMs, such as serum C-terminal telopeptide of type I collagen and serum procollagen type I N-propeptide, as monitoring tools to assess the responses to treatment. Therefore, the proper application and assessment of BTM in clinical practice is very important. However, their use in Korea is still insufficient. Therefore, the BTM committee has set up by the Korean Society for Bone and Mineral Research have been constituted and provided a position statement which will suggest on the clinical application of BTM for the management of postmenopausal osteoporosis in Korea.

Use of Bone Turnover Markers in Clinical Practice for the Management of Osteoporosis in Korea: From the Survey on the Prescription Pattern of Bone Turnover Markers

BACKGROUND: There has been interest in the clinical potential of bone turnover markers (BTMs) as tools both for assessing fracture risk and for monitoring treatment. However, the practical use of BTMs has been limited by their biological variability and difficulties in the interpretation of results. We investigated the current situation of application of BTMs by clinicians in Korea for the management of osteoporosis through a survey asking the patterns of BTMs prescription in clinical practice.METHODS: The survey was conducted online using the “google survey” by the BTM committee authorized by the Korean Society for Bone and Mineral Research.RESULTS: Total 108 clinicians responded the survey. Most of the respondents prescribed BTMs (80.6%) when they prescribed anti-osteoporotic medications (AOMs). The most frequently prescribed bone resorption and formation markers were serum C-terminal telopeptide of type I collagen (90.7%) and osteocalcin (65.1%), respectively. BTMs were mostly prescribed before starting AOMs (90.8%) and used for the purpose of evaluating treatment response (74.4%). Treatment response and compliance to AOMs were evaluated according to the change of absolute value of BTMs (55.1%). The respondents complained difficulties in the interpretation of BTMs (33.3%), the choice of proper BTMs (17.2%), and the proper sample preparation and handling (13.8%).CONCLUSIONS: In Korea, most of clinicians recognized the benefit of BTMs in the management of osteoporosis. However, there are limitations in the broad use of these markers in clinical practice. Therefore, a clear recommendation for BTM in Korea enhances their use in clinical practice.

Presence of Carotid Plaque Is Associated with Rapid Renal Function Decline in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus and Normal Renal Function

BACKGROUND: Recent evidences indicate that early rapid renal function decline is closely associated with the development and progression of diabetic kidney disease. We have investigated the association between carotid atherosclerosis and rapid renal function decline in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus and preserved renal function.METHODS: In a prospective, multicenter cohort, a total of 967 patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus and preserved renal function were followed for 6 years with serial estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) measurements. Common carotid intima-media thickness (CIMT) and presence of carotid plaque were assessed at baseline. Rapid renal function decline was defined as an eGFR decline >3.3% per year.RESULTS: Over a median follow-up of 6 years, 158 participants (16.3%) developed rapid renal function decline. While there was no difference in CIMT, the presence of carotid plaque in rapid decliners was significantly higher than in non-decliners (23.2% vs. 12.2%, P<0.001). In multivariable logistic regression analysis, presence of carotid plaque was an independent predictor of rapid renal function decline (odds ratio, 2.33; 95% confidence interval, 1.48 to 3.68; P<0.0001) after adjustment for established risk factors. The model including the carotid plaque had better performance for discrimination of rapid renal function decline than the model without carotid plaque (area under the receiver operating characteristic curve 0.772 vs. 0.744, P=0.016).CONCLUSION: Close monitoring of renal function and early intensive management may be beneficial in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus and carotid plaques.

Impact of Socioeconomic Status on Health Behaviors, Metabolic Control, and Chronic Complications in Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus

BACKGROUND: The aim of the study was to assess the impact of socioeconomic status (SES) on health behaviors, metabolic control, and chronic complications in people with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) from South Korea, a country with universal health insurance coverage and that has experienced rapid economic and social transition. METHODS: A total of 3,294 Korean men and women with T2DM aged 30 to 65 years, participating in the Korean National Diabetes Program (KNDP) cohort who reported their SES and had baseline clinical evaluation were included in the current cross-sectional analysis. SES included the level of education and monthly household income. RESULTS: Lower education level and lower income level were closely related, and both were associated with older age in men and women. Women and men with lower income and education level had higher carbohydrate and lower fat intake. After adjustment for possible confounding factors, higher education in men significantly lowered the odds of having uncontrolled hyperglycemia (glycosylated hemoglobin ≥7.5%) (odds ratio [OR], 0.63; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.43 to 0.91 for highest education; P(trend)=0.048), while higher household income in men significantly lowered the odds of having diabetic retinopathy (OR, 0.59; 95% CI, 0.37 to 0.95 for highest income level; P(trend)=0.048). In women, lower income was associated with a higher stress level. CONCLUSION: Men with lower SES had higher odds of having diabetic retinopathy and uncontrolled hyperglycemia, showing the need to improve care targeted to this population.

Characteristics of Adrenal Incidentalomas in a Large, Prospective Computed Tomography-Based Multicenter Study: The COAR Study in Korea

PURPOSE: Previous studies on adrenal incidentalomas (AIs) are limited by their retrospective design, small numbers of patients, Western populations, or use of an outdated imaging technique. We investigated the characteristics of AIs in Korean patients and compared them with those reported in the largest retrospective study in Italy to discover the effects of improved imaging techniques and ethnicity differences. MATERIALS AND METHODS: This was a prospective, multicenter, cross-sectional observational study including 1005 Korean patients. Levels of plasma adrenocorticotrophic hormone, 24-h urinary free cortisol (UFC), serum cortisol after a 1 mg-dexamethasone suppression test, 24-h urinary fractionated metanephrine, and plasma aldosterone and plasma renin activity were measured. All AIs were characterized using computed tomography (CT). RESULTS: Compared with the results of the Italian study, AIs in Korean patients were observed more frequently in men and predominantly on the left side. Korean patients with AIs were slightly younger, and fewer patients underwent surgery. Most AIs were nonfunctional in both studies, while fewer subclinical hypercortisolism and more primary aldosteronism (PA) cases were detected in Korean patients. In our study, high UFC levels showed very low sensitivity, compared to those in the Italian study. In pheochromocytoma or PA cases, there were no hormonal differences between the studies. AIs in Korean patients were smaller, such that a lower cutoff size for detecting adrenocortical carcinoma (ACC) could be warranted. CONCLUSION: Recent advances in CT technology were leveraged to provide accurate characteristics of AIs and to detect smaller ACCs.

The Prevalence of Obesity and Metabolic Syndrome in the Korean Military Compared with the General Population

BACKGROUND: Obesity and related metabolic disorders are growing health challenges worldwide and individuals at military service are not exceptions. The purpose of this study was to examine the prevalence of obesity and metabolic syndrome (MS) in the Korean military and to compare with the general population. METHODS: This was a cross-sectional study of 4,803 young military participants who underwent a corporal health-screening program between October 2013 and October 2014. The National Cholesterol Education Program Adult Treatment Panel III criteria was used to identify MS. We also sampled 1,108 men aged 19–29 years from the Korea National Health and Nutritional Examination Survey from 2010 to 2013 to compare with their military counterparts. RESULTS: The mean age of military participants was 20.8 ± 1.1 years, and 20.6% (n = 988) were obese. The prevalence of MS was 0.8% in military participants, while 7.9% in general population. The risk factors of MS were less prominent among military participants relative to civilians, with the exception of high blood pressure, of which prevalence was higher among military participants (21.5% vs. 18.2%, respectively). In multiple logistic analysis, high physical activity conferred lower odds of MS and obesity in military participants (odds ratios, 0.19 and 0.81, respectively). Age older than 25 years increased risk of most components of MS among civilians. CONCLUSION: The prevalence of obesity and MS is lower in military participants compared with civilians of similar age. Monitoring of high blood pressure and proper stress management are warranted in those at military service.

The Relationship between Subclinical Thyroid Disease and Cardiovascular Disease Risk Score in Koreans

Subclinical hyperthyroidism and subclinical hypothyroidism are characterized by abnormal thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) with normal free thyroxine. Subclinical thyroid diseases, to date, have received less attention compared with other thyroid diseases since they are asymptomatic. This study aimed to verify the association between subclinical thyroid diseases and cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) risk score in the Korean population. This was a population-based cohort study using data collected from 3,722 subjects (aged ≥ 30 years) during the 6th Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES VI; 2013–2015). Gender-specific Framingham risk scores were calculated to identify the association between subclinical thyroid diseases and 10-year CVD risk score. Complex survey, with consideration of sampling weight, was analyzed using generalized linear models after stratification by gender. The TSH reference range was between 0.61 and 6.91 mIU/L in this study. TSH showed a positive association with the 10-year CVD risk score only in the female population (P = 0.001). There were significant differences in the least squares means of 10-year CVD risk score by the effect of subclinical hypothyroidism compared with euthyroidism (normal group) in females, after adjusting for body mass index, white blood cell, and urine iodine (P = 0.006 and Bonferroni corrected P = 0.012). In conclusion, subclinical hypothyroidism is associated with increased 10-year CVD risk score in the female Korean population aged 30 years or more. Therefore, we recommend to clinically checkup major CVD risk factors in female patients with subclinical hypothyroidism aged 30 years or more.

Treatment and Diagnosis of Osteoporosis

Osteoporosis is a skeletal disorder characterized by a compromised bone strength and an increased risk of fracture. Older women with low bone mineral density (BMD) have a higher prevalence of atherosclerotic vascular disease (coronary artery disease, ischemic stroke, or peripheral arterial disease) than older women with normal BMD. Also stroke is frequently followed by extensive bone loss, precipitating the increased fracture risk in survivors. Complications from fractures lead to increased morbidity and mortality. In this paper, the clinical evidence, diagnosis and treatments of osteoporosis will be reviewed.

Serum Chemerin Levels Are Associated with Abdominal Visceral Fat in Type 2 Diabetes

Chemerin is a recently identified adipokine suggested to play a role in obesity and its metabolic complications. The relationship between visceral obesity and serum chemerin levels in type 2 diabetes (T2DM) is unknown and may differ from that of subjects without diabetes. Therefore, we evaluated whether serum chemerin was associated with visceral abdominal obesity in patients with T2DM. A total of 218 Korean patients with T2DM were enrolled and metabolic parameters, abdominal visceral and subcutaneous fat areas, and serum chemerin levels were measured. Serum chemerin level showed positive correlation with fasting insulin, HOMA-IR, serum triglyceride, serum creatinine, urine albumin/creatinine ratio, high-sensitivity C-reactive protein (hsCRP), fibrinogen, abdominal visceral fat area, visceral to subcutaneous fat area ratio, and negatively correlation with high density lipoprotein cholesterol and creatinine clearance (CCr) after adjusting for age, gender and body mass index. Multiple linear stepwise regression analysis showed that abdominal visceral fat area (β = 0.001, P < 0.001), serum triglyceride (β = 0.001, P < 0.001), CCr (β = -0.003, P = 0.001), hsCRP (β = 0.157, P = 0.001), fibrinogen (β = 0.001, P < 0.001) and BMI (β = 0.02, P = 0.008) independently affected log transformed serum chemerin levels. Higher serum chemerin level was associated with higher level of abdominal visceral fat area, serum triglyceride, hsCRP and fibrinogen and lower level of CCr in patients with T2DM. Serum chemerin may be used as a biomarker of visceral adiposity and chemerin may play a role in inflammation, decreased renal function, and increased cardiovascular risk in T2DM.

Two Cases of Phlegmonous Esophagogastritis in New Onset Type 2 Diabetes / 임상당뇨병

Phlegmonous esophagogastritis is a rare bacterial infection that has been reported to result in mortality. The pathophysiology of phlegmonous gastrointestinal infection is unclear, but some predisposing factors are reported. Those include immunocompromised status, alcohol abuse, malignancy and uncontrolled diabetes mellitus. We report two cases of phlegmonous esophagogastritis with newly diagnosed diabetes mellitus. A 26-year-old woman and a 56-year-old woman individually visited our hospital for sore throat, neck pain and fever. The laboratory findings of both patients demonstrated leukocytosis, and elevated serum glucose levels. HbA1c of both patients was above 11%. Enhanced computed tomography of young woman showed submucosal edema with intramural abscess along the esophagus and stomach, and that of older woman showed the same defined to esophagus. In both cases, empirical antibiotic therapy with intravenous third generation cephalosporin and metronidazole were started. Later, we identified Klebsiella pneumonia through pus culture in both cases. The symptoms of case 1 improved with conservative management with antibiotics only. However, case 2 required surgical drainage and esophagectomy. Early radiologic diagnosis of this disease and accurate identification of pathogens are important factors for good prognosis. Therefore, we emphasize suspicion of such a rare disease is needed, especially when the patient has risk factors such as diabetes mellitus.

Metformin-Associated Lactic Acidosis: Predisposing Factors and Outcome

BACKGROUND: Metformin is considered the first choice oral treatment for type 2 diabetes patients in the absence of contraindications. Rarely, life-threatening complications associated with metformin treatment are seen in some patients with underlying diseases. The aim of this study was to further investigate the clinical profiles and risk factors for metformin-associated lactic acidosis (MALA) and the treatment modalities according to survival. METHODS: To identify MALA, we performed a retrospective study in seven diabetic patients who were taking metformin and had been diagnosed with lactic acidosis at Inha University Hospital between 1995 and 2012. For each patient, we recorded the age, sex, daily metformin dosage, laboratory test results, admission diagnosis, and risk factors. Also, concurrent conditions, treatment modalities, and outcomes were evaluated. RESULTS: Six patients had risk factors for lactic acidosis before admission. All patients had renal impairment on admission as a precipitating risk factor. Five patients survived and two patients died despite early renal replacement therapy. Older patients tended to have a poorer prognosis. CONCLUSION: Renal function must be monitored in elderly type 2 diabetes mellitus patients with underlying diseases and conditions causing renal impairment who begin metformin treatment. Accurate recognition of MALA and initiation of renal replacement are essential for treatment.